diff --git a/thesis.md b/thesis.md index 1ef8f65..1145a88 100644 --- a/thesis.md +++ b/thesis.md @@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ In addition to racial disparities in educational attainment, there are also nota ## Previous Research in Educational Attainment -There is a robust literature surrounding educational attainment that captures the role of gender, race, and ethnicity as determinants of educational outcomes. A focus in much of this literature is the gendered differences in educational attainment, which is a well-documented issue overall [@buch], [@jaco], [@dipre]. These gendered differences show that while there was at some point a male-leaning dominance in the levels of educational attainment, women now exceed men in rates of educational attainment, especially post secondary education [@buch], [@jaco], [@dipre]. However, this gender gap reversal does not reflect a reversal in the gender gap as it relates to occupations or wages, according to the literature [@gmao]. +There is a robust literature surrounding educational attainment that captures the role of gender, race, and ethnicity as determinants of educational outcomes. A focus in much of this literature is the gendered differences in educational attainment, which is a well-documented issue overall [@buch], [@jaco], [@dipre]. These gendered differences show that while there was at some point a male-leaning dominance in the levels of educational attainment, women now exceed men in rates of educational attainment, especially post secondary education [@buch], [@jaco], [@dipre]. However, this gender gap reversal does not reflect a reversal in the gender gap as it relates to occupations or wages, according to the literature [@gamo]. Much of the focus in the existing literature concerns differences between white and black individuals. This neglects the disparities and differences in educational attainment that might be observed in other racial and ethnic groups. One of the goals of this study and subsequent tool is to analyze differences across different racial and ethnic groups, with special interest in observing differences in those racial and ethnic groups that literature has failed to cover in detail. @@ -188,15 +188,15 @@ This chapter presents the existing research in gender, racial, and ethnic inequa In order to accurately understand the gender disparities in educational attainment, historical trends of college completion rates ought to be taken into account. College completion rates are often looked at as a marker of educational attainment, as college is often regarded as the highest level of education a person can achieve. From the early 1940s until the 1980s, men dominated rates of college completion, while women fell behind at rates of completion varying from 23.9 to 41.3% [@jaco]. While women were, at this point, disproportionately represented in rates of college completion, their rates of completion continued to grow steadily, which eventually led to their achievement of parity with men in rates of college completion [@gamo]. By 1992, women surpassed men in college completion accounting for 54.2% of all awarded bachelor’s degrees in the US, which is a thirty percent increase to the rate of college completion amongst women in the 1950s. This historical trajectory of gendered differences in college completion rates shows a marked reversal of the gender gap in educational attainment is present, as can be observed in the rapid gains by women in the past century. -McDaniel et al. (2011) [@dipre] found various factors played a role in mobilizing these drastic shifts in college completion rates, varying based on gender. For men, the GI Bill was pivotal in granting access to education to those who otherwise would not have been able to access it, especially low-income individuals, which steadily increased the amount of men going to college. Men were also impacted by the rising demand for college educated workers, especially for high-earning jobs, which usually require specialized skills – like a college education. For women, in the 1960s there was a general sense of rising labor force participation as more women were moving from homemakers to attaining roles in the workforce, especially in the field of higher education. This was labor force participation was further propelled by the advent of contraceptives and the Civil Rights and Womens’ Liberation movements, both of which helped change the social expectations for women, pushing more to pursue starting careers over families. +McDaniel et al. (2011) [@dipre] found various factors played a role in mobilizing these drastic shifts in college completion rates, varying based on gender. For men, the GI Bill was pivotal in granting access to education to those who otherwise would not have been able to access it, especially low-income individuals, which steadily increased the amount of men going to college. Men were also impacted by the rising demand for college educated workers, especially for high-earning jobs, which usually require specialized skills – like a college education. For women, starting in the 1960s there was a general sense of rising labor force participation as more women were moving from homemakers to attaining roles in the workforce, especially in the field of higher education. This was labor force participation was further propelled by the advent of contraceptives and the Civil Rights and Womens’ Liberation movements, both of which helped change the social expectations for women, pushing more to pursue starting careers over families. -The differences in the rates of college completion have a lot to do with gendered differences in educational experiences. Buchmann et al. (2008) [@buch] analyzed gender inequalities in educational performance and attainment, and how they change from childhood to adulthood, as early childhood schooling experiences tend to set the stage for all schooling experiences to follow. Gendered differences in educational performance and attainment start as early as kindergarten, as “academic redshirting”, the delayed entry into kindergarten, is more prevalent among males and children of families of high socioeconomic status. Males make up 60% of children delaying kindergarten, are more likely to be retained a grade, and mature slower when compared to females. In terms of how males and females compare when testing, there is a strong held belief that boys tend to score higher in mathematics assessments while girls score higher in reading. This finding is not necessarily true in the initial years of schooling, as children tend to perform more similarly early on and only start to show differences in testing as they progress through schooling. While women have shown dominance in rates of college completion, they also continuously received higher levels of academic achievement, in the form of grades, when compared to their male counterparts. This is a result of girls having more advanced reading skills than boys, apparent as early as kindergarten, and girls’ advantages in social skills and classroom behavior. Gaps present in children’s educational trajectory are also impacted by gendered differences in parental involvement. Parents tend to be more involved in school-related activities for boys and home-related activities for girls, with their involvement in boys’ education dwindling as boys mature with involvement in girls’ education remains intact. Parental involvement, along with parental education, role modeling, financial and social capital, and academic aspirations (usually derived from familial and other related environments) play a vital role in determining educational attainment. +The differences in the rates of college completion have a lot to do with gendered differences in educational experiences. Buchmann et al. (2008) [@buch] analyzed gender inequalities in educational performance and attainment, and how they change from childhood to adulthood, as early childhood schooling experiences tend to set the stage for all schooling experiences to follow. Gendered differences in educational performance and attainment start as early as kindergarten, as “academic redshirting”, the delayed entry into kindergarten, is more prevalent among males and children of families of high socioeconomic status. Males make up 60% of children delaying kindergarten, are more likely to be retained a grade, and mature slower when compared to females. In terms of how males and females compare when testing, there is a strong held belief that boys tend to score higher in mathematics assessments while girls score higher in reading. This finding is not necessarily true in the initial years of schooling, as children tend to perform more similarly early on and only start to show differences in testing as they progress through schooling. While women have shown dominance in rates of college completion, they also continuously received higher levels of academic achievement, in the form of grades, when compared to their male counterparts. This is a result of girls having more advanced reading skills than boys, apparent as early as kindergarten, and girls’ advantages in social skills and classroom behavior. Gaps present in children’s educational trajectory are also impacted by gendered differences in parental involvement. Parents tend to be more involved in school-related activities for boys and home-related activities for girls, with their involvement in boys’ education dwindling as boys mature with involvement in girls’ education remains intact. Parental involvement, along with parental education, role modeling, financial and social capital, and academic aspirations (usually derived from familial values and other related factors) play a vital role in determining educational attainment. Buchmann et al. (2008) [@buch] also established that women have consistently outperformed men in high school graduation and college enrollment rates, which has continued to increase substantially when compared to men. Contributing factors include men’s higher propensity to drop out of high school (represented by higher rates), delay college enrollment, and acquire GEDs, all of which significantly impacts their college readiness and rates of college completion. Women have also experienced higher levels of degree program completion across all levels of higher education including doctorate and professional degrees, further demonstrating how women are reaching parity with men in the realm of educational completion and attainment [@gamo]. ## Race and Educational Attainment -While gender differences in educational attainment trends suggest that there has been a reversal of the gender gap in educational attainment, racial differences must also be taken into consideration, as these differences have implications for the types of information, opportunities, and resources available to different racial groups. In comparing trends of educational attainment of white people to those of black people, McDaniel et al. (2011) [@dipre] found that for white people, men and women seemed to switch places in terms of which group dominated college completion rates while for black people, women have always held the upper hand. This finding is further held up by a report sponsored by the US Department of Education and the Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics that reports that black women received twice as many degrees as black men [@aud]. +While gender differences in educational attainment trends suggest that there has been a reversal of the gender gap in educational attainment, racial differences must also be taken into consideration, as they are as a direct result of the types of information, opportunities, and resources available to different racial groups. In comparing trends of educational attainment of white people to those of black people, McDaniel et al. (2011) [@dipre] found that for white people, men and women seemed to switch places in terms of which group dominated college completion rates while for black people, women have always held the upper hand. This finding is further held up by a report sponsored by the US Department of Education and the Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics that reports that black women received twice as many degrees as black men [@aud]. In the 1940s, only 1% of all black men in the US completed college whereas approximately 2% of all black women completed college. By the early 2000s, black women continued to dominate college completion rates with 15% of the black female population completing college compared to 10% of black men completing college. The trends in educational attainment for black people are largely influenced by the lack of educational resources and opportunities, especially in the Deep South after the end of slavery. The anti-Black sentiment in this part of the country also limited black men’s access to the G.I. Bill, a pivotal piece of legislation enabling men, particularly those from low-income backgrounds, across the country to receive a post-graduate education, contingent on service in the military, when they otherwise would not have the opportunity to do so. This closed another opportunity for black men to reach parity with women in rates of educational attainment. Additionally, black men have never surpassed white men in rates of educational attainment, largely due to the aforementioned disadvantages present for the black population in regards to receiving an education. @@ -210,7 +210,7 @@ Attainment also varies by race due to the influence of differences in social cap ## Ethnicity and Educational Attainment -In this project, the main ethnic group that will be studied is the Hispanic population. That being said, the Asian ethnic subgroups are also relevant to study, as their rates of educational attainment are relatively high among all levels of education [@aud], [@gamo], [@kao], & [@guerrero]. Additionally, the Asian ethnic subgroups have the lowest high school drop out rates and highest rates of academic achievement, most times outperforming their White peers [@aud]. Nonetheless, within the scope of this project, the Hispanic population's trends will be the main focus, stipulating reasons why their educational outcomes have followed certain patterns. +In this project, the main ethnic group that is studied is the Hispanic population. That being said, the Asian ethnic subgroups are also relevant to study, as their rates of educational attainment are relatively high among all levels of education [@aud], [@gamo], [@kao], & [@guerrero]. Furthermore, the Asian ethnic subgroups have the lowest high school drop out rates and highest rates of academic achievement, most times outperforming their White peers [@aud]. Nonetheless, within the scope of this project, the Hispanic population's trends will be the main focus, stipulating reasons why their educational outcomes have followed certain patterns. According to Dyer & Roman-Torres [@dyer], Hispanic origin refers to those from countries that are native speakers of Spanish or have Spanish-speaking ancestry. This can be hard to distinguish from the term Latino, which refers to those of Latin American origin or ancestry, including the Hispanic population and non-Spanish speaking countries like Brazil. For the purposes of this project, the Hispanic and Latino populations will be referred to as Hispanic. Generally, the Hispanic population accounts for the lowest rates of preschool enrollment, high school completion, and college completion, lowest likelihood of taking college entrance exams and applying to college, and highest proportion of high school drop outs [@dyer], [@krog], [@schneider], [@aud], & [@kao]. All of these factors accumulate and contribute to the Hispanic ethnic group accounting for the lowest rates of educational attainment compared to all other racial and ethnic groups. @@ -220,7 +220,7 @@ The literature points to several different reasons for the low rates of educatio Citizenship and immigration are probably the factors that impact, and potentially skew, the educational outcomes of the US Hispanic population the most. According to Dyer and Roman-Torres [@dyer], citizenship plays a large role in dermining the likelihood of enrollment into and completion of postsecondary education, especially for the Hispanic population due to the influx of undocumented individuals from this ethnic group. Though it is important to note that the aspirations and completion rates to complete college are not very different between citizens and noncitizens; noncitizens face higher risk of needing to curtail their education due to risk of deportation. Additionally, the difficulties associated with immigration and understanding the American education system, coupled with potential language barriers (pertinent especially for first generation immigrants or children of first generation immigrants) further impact the ability for Hispanics to successfully progress through educational transitions and complete some form of postsecondary education [@schneider]. Language barriers especially impact the formative years of education, where lack of reinforcement of literacy activities at home in non-English speaking households is stifled, which can be especially harmful as the child progress through education system. -Cultural norms and values also uniquely inform Hispanic educational outcomes, especially as it pertains to the strong respect of and connection to family, referred to in relevant scholarship as familismo [@kao] & [@dyer]. As a result of this strong family connection, Hispanics have a higher propensity of living at home and attending two year colleges or altogether not continuing school post high school graduation to pursue jobs to support family [@dyer] & [@krog]. In fact, Hispanics make up the largest proportion of associate degree holders compared to all other racial and ethnic groups [@schneider] & [@krog]. According to Kao & Thompson [@kao], familism is also positively linked to higher academic achievement for the Hispanic population. +Cultural norms and values uniquely inform Hispanic educational outcomes, especially as it pertains to the strong respect of and connection to family, referred to in relevant scholarship as familismo [@kao] & [@dyer]. As a result of this strong family connection, Hispanics have a higher propensity of living at home and attending two year colleges or altogether not continuing school post high school graduation to pursue jobs to support family [@dyer] & [@krog]. In fact, Hispanics make up the largest proportion of associate degree holders compared to all other racial and ethnic groups [@schneider] & [@krog]. According to Kao & Thompson [@kao], familism is also positively linked to higher academic achievement for the Hispanic population. In general, looking at trends to project future trends in Hispanic and Asian communities is difficult as a result of a couple of complicating factors. The persistent flows of immigrants into the US, usually coming in with lower fiscal means and levels of parental education, are one of these confounding factors as immigrants represent various different countries with different cultural expectations, which play into fostering different academic trajectories. Interethnic marriage, which is very common in the US, also muddles the ability to track the gains in educational attainment of these identity groups, as the ethnic or racial lineage becomes harder to trace [@gamo]. @@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ In general, looking at trends to project future trends in Hispanic and Asian com This project had originally intended to capture the role of income in educational attainment, but after difficulties with working with the income variable in R Studio, the variable was dropped from the analysis. Nonetheless, income plays an undeniable role in determining class and subsequently, educational attainment. -In fact, children from high-earning households have more access to educational resources like school supplies, books, computers, and tutors, among other things, which can contribute to and increase levels of educational attainment [@apa], [@goldrick], & [@teachman]. Additionally, families from high-income households also have access to higher-quality public schools with better resources or private schooling, though there is little evidence that points to drastic differences in educational outcomes as a result of these “better schools”. Additionally, the level of income a parent makes is correlated to the habits and attitudes instilled in their children and can therefore influence their children’s educational attainment [@apa], [@goldrick], & [@teachman]. Habits like owning books, reading the news, and other related enrichment activities tend to be more prevalent in high-earning households and lead to higher levels of academic success (in achievement and attainment) [@apa]. Even when low-income populations attend college, they may encounter difficulties with keeping up with the demand of the courseload, as a result of their lack of academic preparation, or the financial burden of keeping up with the cost of college [@goldrick]. +In fact, children from high-earning households have more access to educational resources like school supplies, books, computers, and tutors, among other things, which can contribute to and increase levels of educational attainment [@apa], [@goldrick], & [@teachman]. Families from high-income households also have access to higher-quality public schools with better resources or private schooling, though there is little evidence that points to drastic differences in educational outcomes as a result of these “better schools”. The level of income a parent makes is correlated to the habits and attitudes instilled in their children and can therefore influence their children’s educational attainment [@apa], [@goldrick], & [@teachman]. Habits like owning books, reading the news, and other related enrichment activities tend to be more prevalent in high-earning households and lead to higher levels of academic success (in achievement and attainment) [@apa]. Even when low-income populations attend college, they may encounter difficulties with keeping up with the demand of the courseload, as a result of their lack of academic preparation, or the financial burden of keeping up with the cost of college [@goldrick]. An earlier study found that parental income only impacts educational attainment when a student is eligible for a government student loan or the G.I. Bill, despite the belief of a great impact. [@taub] Though this is not exactly the case, as other studies seem to elude to the idea that income does influence educational attainment, especially by way of the type of opportunities and resources available. In fact, DeGregorio and Lee (2003) [@degreg] found that there seems to be a relationship between income and education, especially as it relates to inequality of both. They found that income inequality increases with increases in education inequality. To further support this, Coady and Dizoli (2017) [@coady] found that expansions and improvements in education reduces overall income inequality by decreasing the inequality in education. @@ -246,7 +246,7 @@ Another factor that is important to consider in the realm of studying inequities ## Fusion Analysis -EduAttain was created with the intention of serving as an implementation of Computational Social Science Fusion Analysis in action. Computational Social Science Fusion Analysis is an emerging field and scientific approach that combines machine-based methods and explanatory empiricism, as a basis for the discovery of new policy-related insights for business, consumer, and/or social settings [@jing] & [@kauf]. Given the wide variety of ways to perform analysis on data and the ever-growing importance of big data analytics in every sector of business, using fusion analytics could yield for better results from the data [@jing] & [@kauf]. +**EduAttain** was created with the intention of serving as an implementation of Computational Social Science Fusion Analysis in action. *Computational Social Science Fusion Analysis* is an emerging field and scientific approach that combines machine-based methods and explanatory empiricism, as a basis for the discovery of new policy-related insights for business, consumer, and/or social settings [@jing] & [@kauf]. Given the wide variety of ways to perform analysis on data and the ever-growing importance of big data analytics in every sector of business, using fusion analytics could yield for better results from the data [@jing] & [@kauf]. This project presents an interdisciplinary application bridging the disciplines of Computer Science, Sociology, and Economics together; combining explanatory empiricism and computational power for better insights into racial, ethnic, and gender inequalities in education. The benefits include being able to quickly create and run models and simulations and drawing out informative conclusions through the employment of statisitical and econometric methods to create policy informed decisions.